In recent years, museums and other cultural institutions are increasingly being asked whether they have a moral responsibility to return objects in their collections to countries, communities, families, or individuals who claim a connection to them. These debates about cultural restitution and repatriation have become increasingly visible, involving discussion of artefacts with complex histories. High-profile cases such as the Parthenon Marbles, the Rosetta Stone, and the Benin Bronzes have drawn public attention to these issues. But many restitution questions also arise away from the media spotlight.
At the centre of these debates is a real ethical tension. On the one hand, claimants may have strong moral reasons for seeking the return of an artefact, particularly when there are concerns about the manner in which the artefact was historically acquired. On the other hand, museums often understand themselves to be caretakers of objects that are culturally important to a wide public, and they play an important role in enabling access to heritage, as well as facilitating education and research.
There are rarely simple answers in what can be a complex moral terrain. Yet museums are increasingly expected to explain how they reach their decisions in ways that are careful, fair, and transparent.
To support this work, the Uehiro Oxford Institute, working with the Institute of Art and Law, has developed DARCA — the Decision Aid for the Restitution of Cultural Artefacts.
What is DARCA?
DARCA is a free online ethics tool designed to help people think carefully about whether there is a strong moral case for returning a cultural artefact in a particular situation.
Rather than telling users what decision to make, DARCA asks a structured set of questions that reflect issues widely discussed in existing ethical guidance and academic research. These questions are intended to help users work through the moral considerations involved, make their reasoning clearer, and record how they reached their conclusions.
DARCA is primarily designed for museum trustees and professionals, but it may also be useful for potential claimants, researchers, students, policymakers, and members of the public who want to better understand how ethical decisions about restitution can be approached.
Why was DARCA developed?
Museums already follow guidance on how to handle restitution claims, including advice on gathering evidence, involving relevant stakeholders, and being open about decision-making. In England, for example, Arts Council England has published widely used guidance on restitution and repatriation.
DARCA does not replace this guidance. Instead, it focuses on a related question: how to think through the moral issues themselves once the relevant evidence has been gathered from historical sources and from relevant stakeholders.
In practice, decision-makers must often balance competing responsibilities. How important is the object to the claimant? How did the museum acquire it? What role does it play in public education and access? Would returning it lead to better care, understanding, or context?
DARCA was created to help users consider these questions in a consistent, structured, and thoughtful way.
How is DARCA used?
DARCA is intended to be used once a museum has gathered relevant information about a claim and engaged openly with those involved. At that point, the decision aid can support reflection on the strength of the moral grounds to return the artefact.
Users are guided to consider a number of issues such as:
- the relationship between the claimant and the artefact;
- the cultural value of the object to the claimant;
- how the artefact came into the museum’s possession;
- the cultural importance of the artefact in its current setting;
- whether the claimant could care for and publicly display the artefact;
- whether return would improve access or understanding;
- obstacles the claimant faces in accessing the artefact.
Each question on the decision aid includes brief guidance explaining some of the ethical nuances of these issues, and users can add their own notes explaining their reasoning. At the end of these questions, DARCA generates a short outcome document summarising the implications that the user’s answers have for the strength of the moral claim for restitution in this case.
DARCA is designed to be used on a case-by-case basis, and it can be revisited as new information emerges. If more than one claim exists, each can be considered separately, with the results capable of comparison to determine the relative moral strength of each.
What DARCA does — and does not — do
DARCA is an ethics decision aid, not a decision-maker. It does not give legal advice, assess ownership, or tell users what they ought to do. Its role is to help clarify which ethical factors matter, and how they relate to one another in coming to a decision about the strength of the moral reasons supporting a restitution claim.
The tool is not intended for use in all situations. It does not cover claims involving human remains, property lost or stolen during the Nazi period in Europe, or digital artefacts, which are addressed by separate frameworks.
Who developed DARCA?
DARCA was developed by researchers at the Uehiro Oxford Institute and the Institute of Art and Law, working with external contributors who have experience of restitution cases or expertise in ethics and policy, including from museum, claimant and legislative perspectives. The project grew out of an interdisciplinary workshop supported by the Oxford Policy Engagement Network, and includes members from the ANTITHESES project, which engages in research that can meaningfully engage in radical value disagreements in policy matters.
The questions used in DARCA are based on peer-reviewed research in moral philosophy and shaped through consultation with practitioners and stakeholders. Extended guidance and background materials are available in the Resources section of the site.
Supporting careful ethical reflection
Decisions about cultural restitution are rarely straightforward. They involve complex matters of history, values, and differing views about justice and responsibility.
DARCA is designed to support careful ethical reflection in this challenging area. By helping users ask the right questions and explain their reasoning clearly, it aims to encourage decisions that are thoughtful, transparent, and ethically grounded.
Visit DARCA at https://darca.uehiro.ox.ac.uk/
We hope the site is useful – if you take a look, and you have a moment to provide us with some feedback, this would be hugely appreciated. You can provide feedback via the relevant tab on the site.
The Launch
Whilst DARCA is now available to use, there will be a formal launch event for the decision aid on 6th March 2026 at Reuben College Oxford, with a panel event including members of the DARCA working group, followed by a drinks reception. Book your place.